Background
Terrorism in West Africa has become apparent as a threat in recent years, remarkably with the rise of extremist groups and a plethora of violent incidents that have undermined the region, particularly in countries like Mali and Burkina Faso. The expansion of jihadist organizations, such as Boko Haram and Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal-Muslimin (JNIM), has created an environment of fear and insecurity. These happenings within the subregion have implications in neighboring countries such as Ghana, which so far has managed to avoid any direct attacks.[1][13].
The historic origins of terrorism in West Africa can be retraced to a blend of socioeconomic injustice, political instability, and weak governance structures. Considerations such as unemployment, poverty and ineffectual state institutions have produced a fertile ground for extremism within the subregion.[4][5][6]. This was characterized by a series of coups and conflicts, particularly in Mali and Burkina Faso since the early 2010s. Following the return of Tuareg nomads from Libya in 2011, the Movement for the Liberation of the Azawad rebelled against the Malian government in the thick of the political void created by a military coup in 2012.[1][13].
The political terrain in Burkina Faso has encountered drastic changes with the military overthrowing President Roch Marc Christian Kaboré in January 2022 referring to the government’s failure to address Islamic threats.[14][1]. This was superseded by a second coup in September 2022, when Captain Ibrahim Traoré overthrew Lt. Colonel Paul-Henri Damiba, further establishing military rule in the thick of claims of flawed security measures.[14][1]. Such disruptions have left the state weak with sovereignty over only about 60% of its jurisdiction, making it strenuous to successfully fight terrorist activities and establish public order.[1]
The crumpling of democratic governance and the rise of extremist groups have necessitated regional and global concerns about stability in West Africa. The discontinuation of the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA), early 2024 intensified these tensions, as the Malian Junta ended the 2015 Algiers Accord, indicting signatories of contravening the peace agreement.[5] The Sahelian Junta’s resolution to leave sub-regional bodies such as ECOWAS emphasizes a complex interaction between local governance crisis and foreign power, which many Sahel states view as a disadvantage to their authority and security.[5]
Key Players in West African Terrorism
- Boko Haram
Predominantly engaged in Northeastern Nigeria, Boko Haram is recognized as a religiously motivated group. However, studies reveal that the group’s terrorism does not only emanate from religious beliefs but also crucial socioeconomic grievances and concerns including corruption, poverty, and infringement of fundamental human rights in northern Nigeria.[2]. Boko Haram, which aims to expel Western influence and create a Salafi-Islamist state in its area of operations, has killed an estimated 50,000 people and displaced more than 2.5 million people since it was established in 2002. The group was at various times affiliated with al-Qa‘ida or ISIS but is not currently aligned with either group. In mid-2021, longtime Boko Haram amir Abubakar Shekau killed himself to avoid capture during an offensive by rival group ISIS–West Africa. Since then, Boko Haram has lost most of its fighters and territory in Nigeria as former members have defected to ISIS–West Africa or turned themselves in to local governments.[24].
- Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal-Muslimin
Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal-Muslimin (JNIM) is a terrorist group based in Mali and active across much of West Africa, including parts of Burkina Faso and Niger. It was formed in March 2017, when four Mali-based extremist groups—Ansar al-Din, al-Murabitun, the Macina Liberation Front (MLF), and the Sahara Emirate subgroup of al-Qa‘ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM)—announced that they had merged, formalizing cooperation among them. The leader of JNIM, Iyad ag Ghali, pledged the group’s allegiance to the amir of AQIM, to the amir of al-Qa‘ida, and to the leader of the Taliban.[24] This group is a major actor in the Sahel claiming responsibility for several attacks targeting both military and civilian activities in Mali and Burkina Faso through coordinated operations. The group’s ideology aims to establish an Islamic state within the subregion.[4][13].
- Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM)
AQIM serves as the North African ally of Al-Qaeda and has a dynamic terrorist involvement in West Africa. Originating from Algeria, the group focuses to impose Islamic law and has willed immense support from youths across the region including Mali, Niger, and Senegal.[13]. AQIM has been traced to a number of attacks against Western interests and has joined alliances with local militant groups to grow its influence, making them a key player in the regional security panorama.
- Al-Mourabitoun
Al-Mourabitoun (“The Sentinels”) is a violent, jihadist terrorist group in West Africa that aims to implement sharia (Islamic law). The group was formed from a 2013 merger between al-Mulathamun (“The Masked Men”) Battalion (AMB) and the Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa (MUJAO). Both groups were offshoots of AQIM. In December 2015, al-Mourabitoun merged with AQIM after a joint attack on the Radisson Blu hotel in Bamako. This attack signaled a declaration of unity between both groups. Al-Mourabitoun has since taken the lead in AQIM operations, including a high-profile attack on a U.N. base in northern Mali. According to the United Nations, al-Mourabitoun established ties with local Libyan tribes and marginalized groups in early 2017 in order to expand its operations into Libya.[26].
- Drivers of Terrorism in West Africa Socioeconomic Drivers
West Africa’s susceptibility to terrorism is greatly influenced by endemic poverty and socioeconomic inequalities. The West African region is characterized by a high rate of youth unemployment with Ghana’s figures projected as high as 18.2% in Northern Ghana, around the third quarter of 2023.[16]. Many young people feel dejected as a result of the lack of education and job prospects, rendering them vulnerable to be recruited by extremist groups.[6]. In Ghana, about 6.8 million people live in poverty, basing their survival on less than $2.15 a day.[3] These harsh economic situations create a breeding ground for radical ideologies to form, as terrorists have been known to exploit such susceptibilities by offering financial incentives and a sense of acceptance.[3].
- Governance and Political Instability
Political Instability and governance failures contribute to the increase of terrorism in the region. Poor governance structures, corruption, arrogance of power, and ineffectual government institutions undermine security and create a fertile ground for extremist activities.[5]. Burkina Faso and Mali have experienced major challenges which have made security forces incapable of effectively addressing terrorist threats.[4]. The failure to address and manage grievances relative to marginalization and neglect can drive communities towards extremism as a way of expression and resistance.[2].
- Religion and Ethnicity
The interweaving of religious radicalism and ethnic tensions amplifies incidents and occurrences of terrorism in West Africa. Historical frictions, land disputes, and resource allocation biases have the potential to ignite clashes between different groups.[10][17]. Politicization of ethnic tensions and conflicts during elections can encourage the appeal of extremism especially in northern regions where poverty and unemployment are disproportionately high.[6].
- Cross-Border Issues
The porous nature of borders in West Africa expedites the movement of extremist groups and the trafficking of weapons and illicit goods. Stronger ties are easily built with ethnic kin among many communities in the North in contrast with the South, which often can lead to rather strengthening cross-border networks that support terrorism and insurgency.[17]. These ties can be exploited by extremist groups who take advantage of regional instability to expand their dominance.
- External Influence and Global Terrorism
The presence of terrorist networks in the Sahel region has an impact relative to West Africa’s security. Conflicts and instability in neighboring countries such as Mali and Burkina Faso can lead to a spillover of violence in neighboring countries. Security initiatives have been strengthened within the region with the support of the United States of America and the European Union to address growing threats of terrorism within the Sahel.[18]. This foreign support emphasizes the global extent of the terrorism threat in West Africa, as local conflicts have become interlinked with global security concerns.
Impact of Terrorism on West Africa
- Socioeconomic Consequences
Terrorism in West Africa, particularly in the Sahel region has resulted in extreme socioeconomic challenges. Insecurities manifest in several ways such as kidnappings, violence, bombing etc. which severely affect the quality of life and displace the population across the region.[7][2]. These insecurities have resulted in the decline of business enterprises, loss of lives and properties, and deep fear in people that negatively affects the economy. The mere threat of terrorism can hinder industrialization and development initiatives as the presence of violent extremist organizations discourages investment and disrupts local economies.[2].
- Humanitarian Crisis
The rise of violent extremist organizations has aggravated an already critical humanitarian crisis in West Africa. For instance, the Liptako-Gourma (tri-border region shared by Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso) area has experienced displacement of millions as a result of conflict, with reports indicating 2.6 million displaced persons.[11]. One of the world’s worst humanitarian crisis has to do with the Lake Chad Basin, with effects primarily originating from climate change and ineffective governance.[11]. These conditions have increased food insecurity and resulted in competition over depleting resources, furthering violence among local communities.[11].
- Escalating Violence
Incidents of violence have increased within the Sahel as a result of an increase in extremist groups. In 2022, attacks spiked with over 2000 casualties reported representing a 50% increase from 2021.[11]. This increase in violence has not only affected military forces but also humanitarian workers, and has created an atmosphere that hinders aid efforts and aggravates the humanitarian crisis.[11][4].
- Displacement and Refugee Exigency
As terrorism heightens, so too does displacement exigencies within the region. In 2019, there were about 115,000 internally displaced persons in Burkina Faso alone, with a lion’s share of them concentrated in regions most afflicted by terrorist attacks.[4][19]. This scenario has resulted in overcrowded camps, where the displaced face severe health risks from ailments such as malaria and cholera, coupled with incidents of sexual violence.[4]. Ghana, a neighboring country also feels the repercussions of such incidents with the influx of Burkinabe refugees and related humanitarian pressures.[1].
Ghana’s Security Environment
Ghana’s national security framework has revolved around key institutions such as the National Security Council, Ghana Armed Forces, Ghana Police Service and National Intelligence Bureau. These institutions continue to play critical roles in maintaining peace and stability, nonetheless, concerns and critiques stress the need for the reframing of a streamlined security infrastructure that addresses seen and unseen threats, and emerging insecurities concerning the rise of terrorism and extremist groups in the Sahel region.[20].
The security phenomenon in Ghana is exposed to a plethora of increasing challenges such as cybercrime, political vigilantism, and cross-border crime. These issues require a more pragmatic and coordinated approach that doesn’t only rely on the traditional approach among security agencies.[20]. The alarming concerns over emerging threats have exposed gaps in Ghana’s existing security infrastructure, indicating a call for reforms.[20].
The appointment of Prosper Bani as National Security Advisor to President John Dramani Mahama is an opportunity for potential reforms and a shift in Ghana’s approach to security.[20]. Ghana’s proximity geographically to countries facing issues with terrorism and extremism such as Burkina Faso and Mali has complicated its security environment. In spite of these occurrences, it is noteworthy to highlight Ghana’s avoidance of any terrorist attack given its situation in regional context and exposure.[10][7].
The implementation of various national security initiatives such as the establishment of a Forward Operating Base in the Western Region which ensures quick response to threats in the oil and gas sector, alongside coalition with friendly nations to enhance security cooperation and community-centered engagements as a critical counter-terrorism strategy has been championed by the Ghanaian government. During this period these interventions have maintained national security as far as threats of terrorism are concerned.[8][10]. The National Action Framework for Preventing Violent Extremism has enhanced coordination across government agencies to address shortfalls and to build resilience against acts of terrorism and extremism.[7]. The Accra Initiative also demonstrated Ghana’s commitment to preventing the effects of terrorism from the Sahel and ensuring regional stability through intelligence sharing and enhanced security operations.[7].
Operations such as ‘Operation Conquered Fist’ have been deployed by the Ghana Armed Forces to border areas to address and deter terrorist activities, reinforcing the country’s preparedness and defense against threats.[7]. This is to further enhance capacity building and counter-terrorism skills. Although these primary security measures are apt and essential, there is a need to integrate both reactive and preventive-oriented strategies as a sandwiched national security approach.[7].
Current Threat Levels in Ghana
Concerning terrorism and violent extremism, Ghana faces an unpredictable security environment, significantly influenced by both internal vulnerabilities and external occurrences and pressures within the Sahel. Though Ghana has managed to avoid direct terrorist attacks, it is being ranked 89th on the Global Terrorism Index in 2024 unlike Burkina Faso and Cote d’Ivoire having experienced some forms of violence from extremist groups.[12]. Unfortunately, the common denominator that facilitates such extremism is undoubtedly evident in the Northern part of the country where socioeconomic challenges such as poverty, high unemployment, and local conflicts are prevalent.[12][21].
Internal considerations that contribute to Ghana’s vulnerability include socioeconomic marginalization such as unemployment. Notably in the North, the unemployment rate is reported to be higher than the national average of 14.7% in 2023.[12]. The lack of public understanding regarding the risks associated with violent extremism, compounds the country’s vulnerability to extremist ideologies have been pointed out by the National Commission for Civic Education.[7]. The widespread discontent with governance and perceptions of corruption, arrogance of power, and human rights violations has incentivized some citizens to seek radical alternatives to express and vent out frustrations.[8]. These actions pose a threat as it has the potential to encourage these individuals to align with extremist ideologies.
Threats to Ghana’s peace and stability can also be perpetuated through external fashions and means. The spillover from violent extremist organizations operating in the Sahel region includes countries such as Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Mali, and Niger.[16]. Ghana’s closeness to these conflict zones is particularly an issue of concern due to the potential and possibility of extending extremist influence into Ghana.[16]. It has become more apparent to reflect on these questions. Is Ghana indeed a safe-haven for terrorists and for how long? Can we prevent violent extremism indefinitely? Is the influence of extremism and terrorism inevitable in Ghana?
Ghana’s Response and Preparedness
The Northern Command of the Ghana Armed Forces operates in collaboration with various agencies such as the Ghana Police Service, Ghana Immigration Service, Ghana Customs and Preventive Unit of GRA, and Ghana National Fire Service to ensure an apt response to security challenges.[8][7]. Units within the Ghana Airforce and Navy such as the 69 Airborne Force and the Special Boat Squadron are tasked with addressing threats in vulnerable areas in the Northeast region.[8].
Several operations have been undertaken by the military to enhance their readiness. Operation Koudanlgou I, II, III, and IV have all been successfully conducted along borders shared with other countries emphasizing Ghana’s commitment to regional security cooperation.[9][7]. These operations involved the marriage of both kinetic and non-kinetic activities focusing mainly on intelligence sharing through The National Intelligence Fusion Centre.[9][7]. The multinational task force headquarters established in Tamale is also a development geared towards Ghana’s collaborative efforts and preparedness against terrorism.[9].
Counter-terrorism capabilities have been enhanced over the period through regular training exercises by the Ghana Armed Forces such as Exercise Eagle Claws and several others which involve real-world scenarios and experiences aimed at enhancing real-life tactical skills and intelligence responses to potential threats.[23][7]. Equipment such as vehicles and aerial systems have been received by the military to strengthen its operational capacity.[18].
In recognition that current security threats go beyond military might, community-based projects such as ‘See Something, Say Something’ seek to make security a collective responsibility by engaging citizens in the fight against terrorism, increasing public awareness, and encouraging individuals to report suspicious activities within their enclaves.[22][9]. This project seeks to bring all stakeholders, religious leaders, and traditional leaders to ensure community resilience against violent extremism.[7]. While these efforts are notable, critics argue that without addressing the underlying socioeconomic challenges and marginalization, perceptions of corruption, and political issues affecting citizens, all these efforts will be woefully insufficient and cannot be as effective and impactful as expected.[7][5].
References
[1] Gouache, A., Hokholt, E., & Meyer, V. (2024). Intelligence Report: Burkina Faso – Security Trends and Future Prospects in the Sahel Region. London Politica.
[2] Ray, N. (2016). The Rise of Islamic Terrorism in Mali. Indian Council of World Affairs.
[3] Sasu, D. D. (2024). Number of people living in extreme poverty in Ghana 2016-2026. Statistica.com
[4] Counter Extremism Project. (n.d.). Burkina Faso: Extremism and Terrorism.
[5] Counter Extremism Project. (n.d.). Mali: Extremism and Terrorism.
[6] Dube, R. (2020). An Analysis of the Root Causes of Terrorism in West Africa (Nigeria, Mali & Niger).
[7] Tornyi, E. (2019). Interagency collaboration at the heart of Ghana’s counter-terrorism policy. Speech by Akuffo Addo. Pulse.com.gh.
[8] Impraim, K. (2024). The Threat of Violent Extremism to Ghana’s Peace and Security: A Reality or Denial?. Myjoyonline.com.
[9] The Soutan Center. (2024). Jihadist Spillover Impact and Deteriorating Security in Coastal West Africa. Intelbrief.
[10] Military Africa. (2025). Ghana Confronts Growing Terror Threats.
[11] Wolseley Praha, P. K., & Chanimbe, T. (2024). Ghana’s Readiness to Combat Terrorism: Strategies of Security Institutions. Wathi.org & International Journal of Intelligence and Public Affairs.
[12] Bone, M. R. (2024). Islamist Extremists are a Threat to Ghana, Togo and Benin. Foreignpolicy.com.
[13] Ghana News Agency. (2024). Security retooling projects strengthen Ghana’s capabilities against threats. Speech by Ex-President Akuffo Addo. Ghana News Agency.
[14] Aubyn, F. K. (2021). Terrorism in the Coastal States of West Africa. ACCORD.
[15] Center for Preventive Action. (2024). Violent Extremism in the Sahel. CFR Global Conflict Tracker.
[16] Orrell, H. (2025). The Region with More Terror Deaths than the Rest of the World Combined. BBC.
[17] Madugu Arornyotse, B. (2025). Restructuring Ghana’s National Security Architecture: The Role of Prosper Bani. Ghana Web. Article 1967683.
[18] Ghana Peace Journal. (2022). Ghana’s Military Efforts in Curbing Terrorism. Speech by Vice Admiral Seth Amoama, CDS-GAF.
[19] Global Community Engagement and Resilience Fund (GCERF). (n.d.). Ghana.
[20] Aryee, A. O. (2024). Combating Terrorism in Northern Ghana: Innovative Intelligence and Security Strategies. Graphiconline.com.
[21] Ministry of Information (PR Unit). (2022). Ghana steps up measures to combat terrorism. Delivered by Edward Kweku Asomani (Dep. National Security Coordinator).
[22] Africa Defense Forum. (2023). Ghana Acts to Keep Terrorism at Bay.
[23] Africa Defense Forum. (2024). Ghana Focuses on Counter-terrorism with Exercise Eagle Claws.
[24] Office of the Director of National Intelligence (USA). (2022). Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTO). https://www.dni.gov/nctc/ftos/jnim_fto.html
[25] Office of the Director of National Intelligence (USA). (2022). Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTO). https://www.dni.gov/nctc/ftos/boko_haram_fto.html
[26] Counter Extremism Project (2025). Extremist Groups and Leaders. https://www.counterextremism.com/threat/al-mourabitoun
