1.Background
Several countries in the western part of Africa have been hit by waves of terrorism in recent years. In the first half of 2023, that is, from January to June 2023, the sub-region recorded over 1,800 terrorist attacks (France 24, 2023). This caused the deaths of hundreds of people, with Burkina Faso recording the highest death rate of 2,725 people, Mali recording 844 deaths, and Niger and Nigeria recording 77 and 70 deaths, respectively. In addition, these attacks resulted in the defacing of public and private properties as well as the displacement of people who ended up seeking refuge in other countries, resulting in pressures on those countries.
Although the Economic Community of West African States was initially formed in 1975 to enhance economic inclusion and development of member states, its aim and scope of operation have over the decade broadened to include security issues, including counterterrorism. The main reason for this development is that security, stability, and peace are essential pivots around which effective regional inclusion and growth in all its dimensions revolve. In response to this, the organisation has established several regulations as well as standards regarding conflict avoidance, control, and settlement extending to peacekeeping, dealing with corruption, drug abuse, drug smuggling, and organised crimes.
In 2023, Dr Omar Touray, who was the president of the organisation, revealed that the head of militaries proposed two options for counter-terrorism in the sub-region. The first is the formation of a 5,000-solid regiment at the cost of $ 2.5 billion yearly and the second option is the deployment of battalions upon request at the cost of $360 billion yearly (France24, 2023). However, Touray argued that the willingness and dedication of member states to endorse legally obligatory counterterrorism regulations is missing. For instance, Akanji (2019) provided an empirical example to support Touray’s claim. He argued that in 2015, Nigeria, Guinea, Cape Verde and Sierra Leone failed to submit their 2015 yearly country report to the specialised institutions in charge of the fight against money laundering (GIABA). This prevented the evaluation of the nature of terrorism funding as well as money laundering in these countries, preventing possible assistance from GIABA. Akanji also added that inadequate funding has also hindered counterterrorism efforts within the sub-region.
Territorial sovereignty, according to international law, is the requirement for safety, stability, and the unique set of characteristics felt by a particular group of people within a defined area. Territory is one of the key elements for determining the jurisdiction and supremacy of a state (Shaw, 1986). As argued by Oppenheim (1955), there cannot be a state without a defined territory. However, security contagion is a major challenge in the sub-region. In the June edition, CISA analysts framed the concept of security contagion – the process where security threats in one region spread to others – through the lens of system theory and feedback mechanism considering the weak and poorly defined borders in the sub-region. This article seeks to systematically examine counterterrorism as a concept and how it interacts with the question of territorial sovereignty in the West Africa region. Thus, this study aims to identify emerging options that solve the inherent problems in achieving security without violating state sovereignty. Specifically, the article aims to answer two main questions:
- In what ways does this counter-terrorism affect the sovereignty of territory in the West African region?
- What measures can be applied to make counter-terrorism operations more balanced in terms of the conflict of interests between the need for safeguarding territorial integrity and the fight against global terrorism?
2. Current State Of Terrorism In West Africa
Western Africa is made up of about 17 independent and sovereign states with 4 ranking high on the global terrorism index (first ten) in 2023. For the first time in decades, the hot spot of terrorism has moved out of the Middle East to the West African sub-region which now recorded over half of all deaths from terrorism in 2023 (Global Terrorism Index, 2021). The dramatic increase in terrorist activities in the sub-region is primarily due to two groups: Two of the most active are the Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal-Muslimin (JNIM) also known as the Signatories in the Triple Frontier and the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS). Although Al-Qaeda and other related groups had been active only in the extreme north of Mali, the group’s activity spread through Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger. These threats have recently been worsened by the strengthening of the Islamic states of Iraq in West Africa, as this terrorist organisation has been a major security menace in the sub-region (United Nations, n.d).
3. Concept of Security Contagion
One cannot, anymore, speak of exclusive violent extremism of the Sahelian states of Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, Mauritania and Chad. Their threat of expansion is crossing over to the northern provinces of West African coastal countries including Benin, Ghana and Togo. This was evidenced on 1st May 2019, when two French tourists together with their Beninese guide, were kidnapped in Pendjari National Park in Benin. The Grand Bassam attack of March 2016 in Côte d’Ivoire had proven that a violent extremist group would not be limited to the Sahel region through an attack on a coastal city. This attack which was alleged to have been carried out by Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) was planned in Mali and those involved travelled from there. The extremists were also identified in northern Benin, Togo and Ghana after the March 2019 beginning of the Otapuanu military operation in south-eastern Burkina Faso. It is said to have netted a militant leader Oumarou Diallo who stated he intended to implant a jihadist squad in eastern Burkina Faso affecting coastal states. In July 2021, this was confirmed by Ghana’s Minister of Information, Mr Kojo Oppong Nkrumah, who said at the time that: “Terrorist groups active in the West African region have been able to enlist the support of some people from Ghana to support their activities”. (Asaase Radio, 2021).
4. Territorial Sovereignty in West Africa
Territorial sovereignty denotes the rights of a country to self-governance and control over events occurring within its borders, exclusive of external interference. This right is central to maintaining order, security, and the rule of law within any country. From a legal perspective, it grants a nation the power to enact laws and make decisions within that territory. It enables a country to have complete control over the enforcement of its policies and the protection of its citizens from any sort of external aggression (Bernardez, 1987). In West Africa, this concept of territorial sovereignty has been given salient twists by its colonial past.
During colonial times, European powers created arbitrary boundaries that could not correspond to ethnic, cultural, and even linguistic realities in the region (Gbeneye, 2016). The newly independent nations were, therefore, challenged by such artificial boundaries in cohesion and control of territories through governance structures. In some cases, the grievances of the borders left behind by colonialism have led to disputes over land and resources between neighbouring countries. This has complicated regional stability and efforts at cooperation (Aghemelo and Ibhasebhor, 2006). This, therefore, remains valid for the West African countries in their struggle for independence and self-government on their terms, despite all these challenges to territorial sovereignty.
5. Counterterrorism Efforts in West Africa and Territorial Sovereignty
Counterterrorism refers to a wide range of strategies and measures that are ranged against terrorist activities and organisations. It is very important in West Africa, particularly in regions like the Sahel, for regional security and stability to be achieved. Such implementation includes counterterrorist measures in the actualisation of military operations and international partnerships; what this presents is huge challenges for territorial sovereignty. Mali is the pertinent case study of how national authorities, backed up by international allies—especially France through Operation Barkhane—have increased the stake of military engagements from August 2014 to November 2022, and more recently by the Wagner group from Russia, towards quelling extremist groups like JNIM and ISGS.
While these initiatives seek to buttress and reinforce security measures and reaffirm dominance over national territories, they do permeate a complex reaction with territorial sovereignty. Foreign military forces, including Russian advisors and equipment, underscore the delicate balance between national sovereignty and the need for international support to counter transnational threats. An improved system of border surveillance and military checkpoints is an integral component of these efforts as they strive to prevent clandestine cross-border movements of terrorists. However, these security measures impact the border places’ economies and hinder ancient cross-border activities, which creates a dispute about the prevalence of state—in this case, Mali’s—sovereignty which is very important to the local populations involved.
Moreover, these counterterrorism operations can inadvertently contribute to security contagion in the region. In West Africa, the porous nature of borders between countries like Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, and others exacerbates the spread of terrorist activities. Intensified military operations in one country can displace terrorist groups into neighbouring territories, leading to a diffusion of security risks across national boundaries. For instance, efforts to clamp down on terrorist strongholds in Mali’s northern regions have pushed militant groups to relocate and establish new bases in neighbouring Burkina Faso and Niger, thereby spreading insecurity and undermining efforts to maintain territorial sovereignty. This phenomenon highlights the interconnectedness of security challenges in the Sahel and the need for coordinated regional approaches that respect sovereignty while addressing transnational threats effectively.
6. Safeguarding Territorial Integrity Amid Global Security Challenges
West Africa is an area where counterterrorism is of particular significance in the face of continued threats from groups such as Jama’at Nasrat al-Islam wal-Muslimin and Islamic State in the Greater Sahara. This notwithstanding, security must also consider a very sensitive balance between its improvement and respect for the sovereignty of countries constituting this geographical area. Such balance is important in ensuring that counterterrorism measures fight terrorism as much as possible while at the same time preserving the autonomy and territorial integrity of West African states. Other critical measures that can be applied to realise this balance pertain to regional cooperation, human rights, community engagement, capacity building, diplomatic partnerships, economic development, and adaptive security strategies.
6.1 Enhanced Regional Cooperation
Greater regional cooperation among West African states and organisations like ECOWAS is required to get strategies against terrorism unified while showing regard for territorial integrity. This, therefore, helps the states bridge intelligence sharing, coordinate military actions, and harmonise border control to avoid giving terrorists weak points across borders. This collaborative approach strengthens regional security, and the risk of undermining sovereignty is reduced since operations are conducted with mutual consent and support.
6.2 Respect For Human Rights And The Rule Of Law
International human rights standards and domestic legislation are integral to the balancing act between objectives in counterterrorism and territorial integrity. Counter Terrorism operations should be conducted transparently and guarantee fairness to all suspects, civilians, and any person affected by security measures. The respect for human rights helps in gaining the trust of the citizens, increasing counterterrorism cooperation, and reinforcing the legitimacy of state actions against terrorism.
6.3 Community Engagement and Dialogue
Involving local communities in counterterrorism builds trust and allows cooperation in balancing security imperatives with territorial integrity. Engaging local leaders and CSO-enabling structures to contribute to prevention, threat identification, and rehabilitation programs enhances resilience against radicalisation and extremism. Engaging communities also implies that whatever counter-terrorism measures are taken would automatically ensure contextual appropriateness—ranking behind local priorities, hence retaining respect for sovereignty in dealing with security challenges.
6.4 Capacity-Building and Training
Effective counterterrorism operations that respect territorial integrity mean that investment has to be placed in the capacity of national security forces through training programs. Training in counterterrorist tactics, intelligence gathering, and border security management equips security forces with the preparedness and wherewithal to fight terrorism without selling out sovereignty. This capacity building at the national level ensures states are better placed to manage security threats on their own while cooperating with international partners in a manner that keeps them autonomous.
6.5 Diplomatic Engagement and Multilateral Partnerships
At the international stage as well as in multilateral institutions, dialogue that takes into account power dynamics and structures between the global North and South becomes an important tool for nations that are confident about counter-terrorism procedures and territorial sovereignty. This is because, since the colonial era, the global South has been viewed as not able to handle its affairs and needing a saviour. It is this kind of dialogue that would ensure interventions and assistance are in line with national sovereignty and relevant to regional security priorities. Strengthened in such a manner, multilateral partnerships would provide better coordination of worldwide efforts against terrorism while adjusting regional security concerns through mutually cooperative actions.
6.6 Development and Economic Opportunities
Studies have shown that unemployment and perceived exclusion are the main reasons for extremism and terrorism. West African countries can minimise the causes of insecurity if there is enhanced job creation, access to basic services, and economic stability in marginalised areas. Economic development can improve social cohesion, and strengthen resilience to militancy and extremism while also enhancing sovereignty. This is because it has the potential to empower communities to fight against any individual or extraneous entity bent on undermining stability.
7. Conclusion
The problem of balancing counterterrorism operations with the requirement to protect territorial integrity in West Africa, therefore, remains complex. Enhanced regional cooperation, respect for human rights, community engagement, capacity building, forging diplomatic partnerships, economic development, and adaptive security strategies are the hallmarks that form the key priorities regional efforts should pursue. This will ensure that the West African states have the best way forward in countering terrorism without compromising their sovereignty or autonomy. Counterterrorism operations must be readable, observant of international norms, and a corollary to local communities in an active capacity. It is this holistic approach that makes security stronger against extremist threats and hence an enabling environment in which peace, resilience, and inclusive development exist within this region. Finally, should long-term stability and prosperity characterise West Africa that way forward will have to be a balanced approach—one that reveres sovereignty yet responds effectively to the binding challenges of security.
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