The Arabs originated from the Arabian Peninsula, with historical references dating back to pre-Islamic times. They played a crucial role in the spread of Islam in the 7th century, which significantly influenced their cultural and religious identity, according to “The Arabs: A History”, written by Eugene Rogan which traces the comprehensive history of the Arab peoples from the rise of Islam to the present.
During the Islamic Golden Age (8th to 14th centuries), Arab civilisation made significant contributions to science, philosophy, medicine, and the arts, with key cultural centres in cities like Baghdad, Cairo, and Damascus. Arabs are united primarily by Arabic, a central Semitic language with a significant historical and cultural heritage (Britannica). Arabic is the liturgical language of Islam and the official language of many countries in the Arab world. Ethnically, Arabs are diverse, including groups from various regions that have been Arabised over centuries.
However, before the Arabisation of other parts of the world, the Arabs were primarily the peoples of the Arabian Peninsula. They include Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates (comprising seven emirates – Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain, Ras Al Khaimah and Fujairah). However, several countries outside the Peninsula were culturally or linguistically assimilated into Arab culture through the spread of Islam and the influence of the Arab Empire. They include Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Mauritania, Sudan, Somalia, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon and Jordan, according to “The Arab Conquests in Central Asia” authored by H.A.R. Gibb and “Islamic Empires: Fifteen Cities that Define a Civilization” written by Justin Marozzi.
Historical Arabisation of Africa
Eight of these Arabised nations are African countries as listed above. How did that come about? According to Hugh Kennedy’s ‘The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In,’ (2007), the Arabisation of Africa began with the early Islamic conquests under the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphates. Following the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, Muslim armies quickly expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula. In 639 CE, the Arab general Amr ibn al-As led the Muslim conquest of Egypt, which marked the beginning of Arab influence in North Africa. This conquest provided a strategic base for further expansion into the Maghreb (modern-day Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco), according to ‘The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c.1050 to c.1600. Cambridge University Press, 1977, written by Ivan Hrbek & J.D. Fage.
By the late 7th century, Muslim forces had reached the Maghreb, with the conquest of Carthage completed by 698 CE and the capture of Berber kingdoms. The spread of Islam facilitated Arabisation, as Arabic became the language of administration, trade, and religious practice, Jamil M. Abun-Nasr’s ‘A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period. Cambridge University Press, 1987,’ recounts. The incorporation of these regions into the Arab Empire was marked by the establishment of new cities and the introduction of Islamic governance and cultural practices.
Integration and Assimilation (8th-11th Centuries)
Arabisation was reinforced through the integration of local populations into the Islamic community. Conversion to Islam often entailed adopting Arabic for religious and practical purposes. The establishment of Islamic educational institutions, such as madrasas, further promoted the use of Arabic, per the account of Ira M. Lapidus’ ‘A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press, 2014.’ The Berbers, the indigenous peoples of North Africa, initially resisted Arab rule but gradually converted to Islam and adopted Arabic. Over time, many Berber tribes assimilated into Arab culture, although Berber languages and traditions persisted in some areas, wrote Michael Brett in his book ‘The Berbers,’ published by Wiley-Blackwell in 2017.
Marshall G. S. Hodgson’s ‘The Venture of Islam, Volume 1: The Classical Age of Islam,’ published by the University of Chicago Press, 1974, notes that the integration of local elites into the Islamic administrative and religious framework facilitated the spread of Arabic and Islamic culture. This period also saw the emergence of Islamic scholarship in North Africa, with notable figures such as Ibn Khaldun contributing to the intellectual and cultural life of the region (Hodgson, 1974).
Cultural and Economic Influence (11th-15th Centuries)
Several powerful Islamic dynasties, such as the Almoravids and Almohads, emerged in North Africa, further consolidating Arab and Islamic influence. These dynasties played a crucial role in promoting Arabic language and culture (Lewis, 2002). Arab traders and scholars contributed to the spread of Islamic culture and the Arabic language throughout the region, including parts of West Africa (Levtzion & Pouwels, 2000).
The trans-Saharan trade routes facilitated cultural exchange between North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. Arab merchants and Islamic missionaries introduced Islam and Arabic to West African empires such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. This period saw the integration of Arabic into local cultures and the establishment of Islamic educational centres in these regions (Hunwick & Boye, 2011).
Continued Arabisation and Modern Influence (16th Century-Present)
The Ottoman Empire’s control over parts of North Africa from the 16th to the 19th centuries reinforced Arabisation, as Arabic remained the language of administration and culture under Ottoman rule (Faroqhi, 2004). The Ottomans contributed to the further spread of Arabic and Islamic practices in North Africa, maintaining the region’s connection to the wider Arab and Islamic world.
The colonial period introduced European languages and cultures, but Arabic remained a significant cultural and religious language. After gaining independence in the mid-20th century, many North African countries reaffirmed their Arab identity, often emphasising Arabisation in national policies. This included the promotion of Arabic language and culture in education and governance (Willis, 2014). The contemporary Arab identity of these countries is a result of this long history of cultural and linguistic transformation.
Recent Arabian forays in Africa
The history clearly shows that the Arabs have been interested in Africa for centuries. Current events show a renewed interest in the affairs of the continent. The Arabs, particularly those in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), have significantly increased their economic, political, and military involvement in Africa in recent years. This involvement spans various sectors, including infrastructure development, trade, investment, and security cooperation.
Economic Engagement and Investment
1. Infrastructure and Development Projects:
- The United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Saudi Arabia have been actively investing in infrastructure projects across Africa. The UAE’s DP World has developed and managed ports in countries such as Djibouti, Somaliland, and Senegal, enhancing maritime trade routes (Reuters, 2023).
- Saudi Arabia’s Public Investment Fund (PIF) has also made significant investments in renewable energy projects and agribusiness in African countries. These investments aim to secure food supplies and diversify the Saudi economy (Arab News, 2023).
2. Trade and Business Ventures:
- Trade between Arab countries and Africa has grown substantially. The UAE has emerged as a leading trading partner for African nations, focusing on sectors like technology, tourism, and logistics. In 2022, the UAE-Africa trade volume reached $50 billion (The National, 2023).
- Saudi Arabia and Qatar have expanded their business footprints in Africa, particularly in real estate, finance, and telecommunications (Bloomberg, 2023).
Political and Diplomatic Relations
3. Strengthening Bilateral Ties:
- Arab nations have bolstered diplomatic ties with African countries through high-level visits, bilateral agreements, and strategic partnerships. The UAE has signed multiple agreements with Ethiopia, Kenya, and Egypt, focusing on economic cooperation and security collaboration (Al Jazeera, 2023).
- Saudi Arabia has also strengthened its diplomatic presence in Africa, opening new embassies and increasing diplomatic engagements with countries like Sudan, Egypt, and South Africa (Middle East Monitor, 2023).
Security and Military Cooperation
4. Counterterrorism and Military Alliances:
- Arab countries have been involved in security and military cooperation with African nations to combat terrorism and piracy. The UAE has provided military training and support to Somali forces and has a strategic military base in Eritrea to ensure regional security (BBC, 2023).
- Saudi Arabia has engaged in security partnerships with African countries to counter the influence of extremist groups and secure its investments in the region. The kingdom has also participated in joint military exercises with African nations to enhance defence capabilities (Al-Monitor, 2023).
Humanitarian Aid and Development Assistance
5. Humanitarian Initiatives:
- The UAE and Saudi Arabia have been key providers of humanitarian aid to African countries affected by conflicts and natural disasters. The UAE’s humanitarian aid programs have supported health, education, and emergency relief efforts in countries like Sudan, Somalia, and Mozambique (ReliefWeb, 2023).
- Saudi Arabia’s King Salman Humanitarian Aid and Relief Center (KSrelief) has conducted numerous humanitarian missions across Africa, focusing on food security, health services, and disaster response (Saudi Press Agency, 2023).
Strategic Implications
6. Geopolitical Influence:
- The increased presence of Arab countries in Africa reflects their strategic interests in securing trade routes, accessing natural resources, and countering regional rivals. The Horn of Africa, in particular, has become a focal point for geopolitical competition involving the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and Iran (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2023).
- The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are critical maritime chokepoints, and Arab countries are keen to ensure their influence over these strategic waterways through economic investments and military bases (International Crisis Group, 2023).
The re-Arabisation of Africa recently crystallised with the launch of the Arab-Africa Financial Consortium (AAFC) in Accra, Ghana during the 6th AU Mid-Year Coordination Meeting on 21 July 2024. As reported by Sputnik, the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa (BADEA), since its establishment in 1974, has been a driving force in promoting economic development across the African continent. It has bankrolled several projects on the continent in agriculture, education, infrastructure and technology.
The AAFC, which is a new partnership between the African Union (AU) and the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa (BADEA) aims to unlock significant financial resources for Africa’s progress. At the launch, Ghanaian President Nana Akufo-Addo, said: “We face complex and multifaceted challenges today, from economic uncertainties and geopolitical tensions to the impacts of climate change. We need such strong partnerships to leverage our collective strengths to surmount these challenges,” urging: “Let us build on the successes of the past and work together to address the challenges of the future. Let us strive to create a more prosperous, inclusive, and sustainable future for all our peoples.”
Also, the chairman of BADEA’s Board of Directors, Fahad Aldossari, affirmed: “BADEA will spare no effort in ensuring this consortium succeeds in realising the vision of Arab-African financial institution collaboration and coordination for leveraging resources for the continent.”
What the partnership means for Africa
Going by the trends in modern history, Africa stands to gain significantly from a renewed partnership with Arab countries across various sectors.
1. Economic Growth and Investment: Arab countries, particularly the Gulf states, have been making substantial investments in Africa. For instance, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) has invested heavily in Ethiopia, supporting 113 projects across sectors such as renewable energy, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. This has not only created jobs but also fostered economic growth (Ecofin Agency).
2. Energy and Infrastructure Development: Partnerships with Arab nations are bolstering Africa’s renewable energy capacity. For example, the UAE’s Abu Dhabi Future Energy Company (Masdar) has committed to developing significant solar power projects in Ethiopia, with agreements to generate up to 2,000 megawatts of photovoltaic energy (Ecofin Agency). Such collaborations help African countries progress towards sustainable energy solutions.
3. Agriculture and Food Security: The Gulf countries are increasingly investing in African agriculture to ensure food security. This collaboration helps improve agricultural productivity and sustainability in African nations, thereby addressing local food security challenges and creating export opportunities (International Partnerships).
4. Technological and Industrial Growth: Investments from Arab countries are enhancing technological and industrial capacities in Africa. For example, industries such as aluminium production, agro-industry, and chemicals benefit from the influx of capital and technology transfer, which can stimulate local economies and create a skilled workforce (Ecofin Agency) (International Partnerships).
5. Cultural and Educational Exchanges: Renewed partnerships often include cultural and educational programmes that foster mutual understanding and cooperation. These programmes can lead to improved educational infrastructure and cultural exchange opportunities, benefiting both regions in the long term (EEAS).
The potential downsides of the renewed partnership
While a renewed partnership between Africa and the Arabs offers several benefits, it also presents certain disadvantages for African nations.
Economic Dependence and Debt
One major concern is the potential for increased economic dependence. Investments and aid from Arab countries might lead African nations to rely heavily on external funding, similar to the patterns observed with aid from other regions. This dependence can undermine local initiatives and long-term economic stability (Ecofin Agency) (Brookings). Additionally, there’s the risk of accumulating debt, particularly if the investments are structured as loans rather than grants, which could burden future generations with substantial repayments (Ecofin Agency).
Exploitation of Natural Resources
Another issue is the potential exploitation of natural resources. Partnerships often involve agreements for resource extraction, which may not always benefit the local population or environment. In some cases, these deals are criticised for favouring foreign investors over local communities, leading to environmental degradation and limited economic benefits for the host country (Ecofin Agency) (Brookings).
Political and Social Concerns
Political influence from Arab countries could also become a contentious issue. Increased Arab involvement in African political affairs might lead to external interference, potentially undermining local governance and autonomy. This influence can manifest in ways that align with the strategic interests of the investing countries, sometimes at the expense of local priorities and democratic processes (Brookings).
Cultural and Social Impact
Cultural and social impacts are another area of concern. The influx of foreign capital and influence can lead to cultural shifts and social changes that might not align with local traditions and values. This dynamic can cause social tensions and disrupt local communities (Ecofin Agency) (Brookings).
Corruption and Governance Issues
Lastly, the presence of substantial foreign investment can exacerbate existing issues of corruption and poor governance. Large-scale investments, especially in resource-rich sectors, often provide opportunities for corrupt practices, which can undermine efforts to improve governance and transparency in African nations (Brookings).
Conclusion
The Arabs are in a rat race with the US, Russia, China and everybody else who wants a piece of Africa. But in all this scramble, how is Africa positioning herself to ensure it isn’t eaten away by foreign powers and left bony? It is important for African leaders, through their regional economic communities – AU, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), East African Community (EAC), Southern African Development Community (SADC), Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), Arab Maghreb Union (UMA) and the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN-SAD) – to work in partnership like never before to strategically safeguard the continent’s resources for immediate, mid-term and long-term benefits through whatever partnerships they may enter with the Arabs, without compromising the future of her generations unborn. In all these partnerships – whether with the US, Europe, Russia, China or the Arabs, Africa must know that she is the ultimate prize and so must price herself in the most valuable way possible while gaining all that could be gained from the ties.
