1. Introduction
Insecurity has become a serious issue across many parts of Africa, particularly in the Sahel region (Raga, Lemma & Keane, 2023; Bøås, 2019; Adedoyin, 2014; Stewart, 2002). The insecurity in these areas is marked by a rise in armed violence, the widespread presence of radicalised groups, and the erosion of state authority. This has transformed the Sahel into a complex and volatile environment (Nwizu & Alozie, 2018; Abdel-Latif & El-Gamal, 2024; Bannon & Collier, 2003).
Much scholarship has been done on the causes of security contagion in Africa, most of which focuses on internal factors such as governance failures, economic inequality, and ethnic tensions. However, there is a dearth of understanding of how external factors—particularly in regions like the Sahel, where Africa has been a strategic battleground for global powers—contribute to security spillover. These external factors, operating via mercenary groups, global power rivalries, and geopolitical conflicts, have been explored only superficially in the literature on African security.
This paper aims to fill this gap by examining the role of external forces in contributing to insecurity and shaping broader patterns of security contagion across the African continent. By exploring the Wagner Group, the influence of the Russia-Ukraine war, and strategic interventions by global powers, the study seeks to provide a balanced understanding of how external forces exacerbate local security challenges. The paper will also analyse the implications of these external interventions using theoretical frameworks such as geopolitical theory, dependency theory, and critical theory to understand broader patterns of power and exploitation shaping Africa’s security landscape.
2. Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
Literature on insecurity in Africa largely focuses on weak governance, socio-economic inequalities, and ethnic conflicts, among other internal factors driving the discourse (see Lukwa et al., 2020; Nwizu & Alozie, 2018; Jinadu, 2007). However, an increasing body of work recognizes the role of external actors, foreign military interventions, arms trafficking, and the involvement of mercenary groups in fueling insecurity in Africa, as seen in Eyeh et al. (2023). This literature also highlights how global powers’ strategic interests often ignite insecurity through their support for authoritarian regimes, resource conflicts, and military interventions that subvert local governance.
Three theoretical perspectives will be applied to analyze the external catalysts of insecurity:
2.1 Geopolitical Theory
The geopolitical theory focuses on the role of global powers’ strategic interests in shaping security outcomes (Topalidis et al., 2024; Cannon, 2024; Lah, 2014). World superpowers like Russia, France, and the U.S. engage in power struggles in Africa, acting as puppeteers pulling the strings. The outcome of this power play is instability, as African states become entangled in geopolitical wars of dominance, where the enemies and allies of global powers also become those of African states (Ismail, 2024; Hörter, 2022; Siegle, 2021).
2.2 Dependency Theory
Dependency theory assesses how African nations’ reliance on external powers for military and economic aid heightens insecurity. According to the theory, external exploitation of African resources, coupled with weak governance structures, creates a cycle of dependency that prevents African states from controlling their security and development (Namkoong, 1999; Dietz, 1980). This dependency leaves African states vulnerable to foreign influence, thereby entrenching insecurity.
2.3 Critical Theory
Critical theory highlights the structural inequalities embedded in global power relations (Thompson, 2017; Rodney, 1972). External interventions in Africa are often framed as efforts to maintain global inequalities, where African states are objects of foreign influence rather than autonomous actors. Critical theory also explores how interventions—even those presented as humanitarian or stabilizing—result in exploitation and the erosion of African autonomy.
3. Analysis of External Catalysts
3.1 The Wagner Group and Mercenary Activities
The presence of the Wagner Group in the Sahel, particularly in Mali, illustrates the relationship between geopolitical and dependency theories. Africa’s strategic importance, wealth of natural resources, and proximity to Europe have attracted external actors like Russia, who view the Sahel as a key region for extending their influence. The Wagner Group’s operations in Mali reflect Russia’s broader strategy to counter Western dominance, especially French influence in the region.
From a dependency theory perspective, the Sahel’s weak political institutions create opportunities for mercenary groups to exploit power vacuums, worsening local insecurity. Countries like Mali, where governance is fragile, struggle to resist external military actors. Wagner’s support for authoritarian governments reinforces these dependencies, perpetuating economic and political exploitation while destabilising local governance structures.
3.2 The Russia-Ukraine War and Its Impact on African Security
The Russia-Ukraine war has significant implications for Africa’s security through the lens of geopolitical theory. As the war diverts Western attention and resources, Russia has seized the opportunity to expand its influence in Africa, particularly in the Sahel. Africa’s increasing vulnerability is tied to global geopolitical shifts as external powers vie for dominance while local conflicts intensify.
From a critical theory perspective, the economic fallout from the war—such as rising food and fuel prices—has worsened socio-economic vulnerabilities in the Sahel, making it harder for local governments to maintain stability. Moreover, Russia’s recruitment of African youth to fight in Ukraine exemplifies the exploitation of Africa’s vulnerabilities for geopolitical gain, further undermining sovereignty.
3.3 Global Power Rivalries and Strategic Exploitation
The competition for natural resources and geopolitical positioning by global powers like the U.S., China, France, and Russia have direct implications for security in the Sahel. Geopolitical theory explains how various external actors prioritize their interests over local security needs. Competition over resources such as gold and uranium has contributed to the region’s militarization and the strengthening of armed insurgents.
Dependency theory highlights how reliance on foreign military and economic aid exacerbates internal conflict and increases dependency. These interventions often temporarily stabilise situations but primarily serve the interests of foreign powers and local elites, perpetuating insecurity and exploitation.
3.4 The Role of International Partnerships
International partnerships with former colonial powers like France or emerging powers like China and Russia critically shape Africa’s security landscape. From a critical theory perspective, such partnerships often reinforce global inequalities, positioning African states as beneficiaries rather than autonomous actors.
These partnerships are frequently reactive to immediate threats like terrorism, failing to address the root causes of insecurity, such as poverty, corruption, and weak institutions. The reliance on external military support instead of building internal capacity contributes to ongoing insecurity.
4. Conclusion
The analysis demonstrates that insecurity in Africa, particularly in the Sahel region, is driven not only by internal factors but also by external actors using these factors as pawns in a broader struggle for dominance. As Walter Rodney argued, Africa continues to be exploited to develop external powers.
African leaders must assert their interests while engaging in global cooperation. By doing so, they can avoid the pitfalls of dependency and ensure that external influences contribute positively. Global collaboration should involve not only the sharing of knowledge and resources but also empowering African agencies to pursue growth sustainably and independently.
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