Introduction
Terrorism can be viewed through the lens of criminal justice as an extreme war crime. It can be conceptualised as a distinct form of partisan or guerrilla warfare. However, terrorism mostly involves assassination or random murder, making it a form of warfare that intentionally defies the laws of war. These laws aim to minimise human suffering and protect civilians. Since terrorism disregards these laws, Osama Bin Laden stated in his interview with John Miller in May 1998, “We do not have to differentiate between military or civilian. As far as we are concerned, [Americans] are all targets.”
In practice, terrorism is essentially an act of violence or the threat of violence used to intimidate or coerce for the purpose of achieving political or ideological objectives. This is often carried out by non-state actors—individuals or organisations that are not part of the government. Terrorism takes many forms, including bombings, armed assaults, hijackings, or hostage-taking. Its targets can vary, ranging from civilians and state actors to general infrastructure, as seen in the September 11th, 2001, attack on the World Trade Center in New York, USA.
In Africa, ethnic and religious considerations are major contributors to the exacerbation of conflicts and are frequently the driving force behind terrorism. Understanding these aspects is crucial in devising effective counterterrorism strategies that can mitigate the impact of terrorism on regional stability.
Ethnic Dimensions of Terrorism
Ethnic diversity in Africa, while a source of cultural richness, has also been exploited by terrorist groups to sow discord and violence. African societies are composed of multiple ethnic groups, some of which are considered minorities or marginalised, resulting in long histories of tension and conflict, often fuelled by competition for resources and political power. Terrorist organisations capitalise on these pre-existing ethnic tensions to recruit members and gain local support.
For example, the conflict in Nigeria involving Boko Haram is not just a religious insurgency but also has significant ethnic undertones. Boko Haram’s recruitment often targets marginalised ethnic groups, using grievances over political and economic exclusion as a mobilisation tool (Onuoha, 2014). Similarly, in the Sahel region, ethnic conflicts between Fulani herdsmen and other ethnic groups have been exacerbated by jihadist groups such as Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS).
Religious Dimensions of Terrorism
Religion is another important factor in the dynamics of terrorism in Africa. Extremist and insurgent groups often use religious rhetoric to justify their violent actions and to recruit followers. In the contemporary African landscape, Islamist terrorism has been on the rise, with groups such as Al-Shabaab in Somalia and Boko Haram in Nigeria citing the establishment of Islamic rule as their ultimate goal. The religious dimension of terrorism in Africa is not just about spreading extremist ideologies but also about the exploitation of religious identities.
These insurgent groups often portray themselves as defenders of the Islamic faith against perceived external threats, a narrative that resonates with some segments of the Muslim population, particularly in regions where state governance is weak or absent. This religious framing of their struggle allows these groups to attract a broader base of support, both locally and internationally (Botha & Abdile, 2014).
Implications for Regional Stability
The ethnic and religious dimensions of terrorism have profound implications for regional stability in Africa. It is worth noting that the two main things Africans are most passionate about are their ethnicity and religion. These factors not only intensify conflicts but also complicate counterterrorism efforts. The ethnic fragmentation of many African states makes it difficult to achieve national cohesion against terrorist threats. Even in Ghana, a country currently enjoying stability from insurgent groups, ethnicity permeates the very fabric of society, often undermining national development and accountability from government officials.
Furthermore, the religious dimensions of conflicts can lead to broader regional or even global repercussions, as seen in the transnational nature of Islamist terrorism. The spill-over effects of terrorism in one country often destabilise neighbouring states, leading to a cycle of violence that hinders national development and governance across entire regions. For instance, the insurgency in northern Nigeria has led to significant refugee flows into neighbouring Niger, Chad, and Cameroon, further straining these countries’ already limited resources and exacerbating regional tensions (International Crisis Group, 2016).
Additionally, the internationalisation of religious terrorism in Africa poses a significant threat to global security. The presence of foreign fighters and the links between African terrorist groups and international jihadist networks mean that the impact of terrorism in Africa extends far beyond the continent. This not only complicates regional security dynamics but also attracts international military interventions, which can further destabilise the region (Barkindo, 2023).
Conclusion
The ethnic and religious dimensions of terrorism in Africa are deeply influenced by the continent’s colonial past and the marginalisation that followed. Colonial powers, in their quest for control, drew arbitrary borders that favoured certain ethnic groups over others, creating divisions that persist today. These historical grievances have left some communities feeling excluded and vulnerable, making them easy targets for recruitment by insurgent groups.
Moreover, Africa’s deep-seated reverence for ethnic and religious identities means that people are often willing to defend these aspects of their identity at any cost. Terrorist organisations exploit these loyalties, using them to fuel conflict and advance their agendas. To effectively combat terrorism and promote stability in Africa, it is essential to address these underlying ethnic and religious tensions, acknowledge the lingering effects of colonialism, and work towards more inclusive governance that respects the continent’s diverse identities.
References
Barkindo, A. (2023). Boko Haram-ISWAP and the Growing Footprint of Islamic State (IS) in Africa. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 15(2), 12–17. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48718087
Botha, A., & Abdile, M. (2014). Radicalisation and al-Shabaab recruitment in Somalia. Institute for Security Studies Papers, 2014(266), 28-31.
International Crisis Group. (2016). Boko Haram on the Back Foot? Retrieved from https://www.crisisgroup.org
Onuoha, F. C. (2014). Why do youth join Boko Haram? United States Institute of Peace Special Report, 348, 1-16. Thurston, A. (2020). Jihadists of North Africa and the Sahel: Local Politics and Rebel Groups. Cambridge University Press.
